`:top

`!Java`!`:cite-ref-2[`F5bf`_`[a`#cite-note-2]`_`f] is one of the `F33f`_`[Greater Sunda Islands`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Greater_Sunda_Islands]`_`f in `F33f`_`[Indonesia`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Indonesia]`_`f. It is bordered by the `F33f`_`[Indian Ocean`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Indian_Ocean]`_`f to the south and the `F33f`_`[Java Sea`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Java_Sea]`_`f (a part of `F33f`_`[Pacific Ocean`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Pacific_Ocean]`_`f) to the north. With a population of 156.9 million people (including `F33f`_`[Madura`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Madura]`_`f) in mid 2024, projected to rise to 158 million at mid 2025, Java is the world's `F33f`_`[most populous island`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=List_of_islands_by_population]`_`f, home to approximately 56% of the `F33f`_`[Indonesian population`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Demographics_of_Indonesia]`_`f while constituting only 7% of its `F33f`_`[land area`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Geography_of_Indonesia]`_`f.`:cite-ref-3[`F5bf`_`[2`#cite-note-3]`_`f] Indonesia's capital city, `F33f`_`[Jakarta`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Jakarta]`_`f, is on Java's northwestern coast.

Many of the best known events in Indonesian history took place on Java. It was the centre of powerful Hindu-Buddhist empires, the Islamic sultanates, and the core of the colonial `F33f`_`[Dutch East Indies`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Dutch_East_Indies]`_`f. Java was also the center of the `F33f`_`[Indonesian struggle for independence`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=History_of_Indonesia]`_`f during the 1930s and 1940s. Java dominates Indonesia politically, economically and culturally. Four of Indonesia's eight `F33f`_`[UNESCO`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=UNESCO]`_`f world heritage sites are located in Java: `F33f`_`[Ujung Kulon National Park`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Ujung_Kulon_National_Park]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Borobudur Temple`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Borobudur_Temple]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Prambanan Temple`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Prambanan_Temple]`_`f, and `F33f`_`[Sangiran Early Man Site`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Sangiran_Early_Man_Site]`_`f.

Java was formed by volcanic eruptions due to geologic `F33f`_`[subduction`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Subduction]`_`f of the `F33f`_`[Australian Plate`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Australian_Plate]`_`f under the `F33f`_`[Sunda Plate`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Sunda_Plate]`_`f. It is the `F33f`_`[13th largest island`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=List_of_islands_by_area]`_`f in the world and the `F33f`_`[fifth largest`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=List_of_islands_of_Indonesia]`_`f in `F33f`_`[Indonesia`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Indonesia]`_`f by landmass, at about 132,598.77 square kilometres (51,196.67 sq mi) (including `F33f`_`[Madura`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Madura]`_`f's 5,408.45 square kilometres (2,088.21 sq mi)). A chain of volcanic mountains is the east–west spine of the island.

Four main languages are spoken on the island: `F33f`_`[Javanese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Javanese_language]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Sundanese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Sundanese_language]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Madurese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Madurese_language]`_`f, and `F33f`_`[Betawi`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Betawi_language]`_`f. `F33f`_`[Javanese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Javanese_language]`_`f and `F33f`_`[Sundanese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Sundanese_language]`_`f are the most spoken.`:cite-ref-4[`F5bf`_`[3`#cite-note-4]`_`f] The ethnic groups native to the island are the `F33f`_`[Javanese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Javanese_people]`_`f in the central and eastern parts and `F33f`_`[Sundanese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Sundanese_people]`_`f in the western parts. The `F33f`_`[Madurese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Madurese_people]`_`f in the `F33f`_`[Eastern salient of Java`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Eastern_salient_of_Java]`_`f are migrants from `F33f`_`[Madura Island`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Madura_Island]`_`f (which is part of `F33f`_`[East Java`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=East_Java]`_`f Province in administrative terms), while the `F33f`_`[Betawi`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Betawi_people]`_`f in the capital city of Jakarta are hybrids from various `F33f`_`[ethnic groups in Indonesia`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Ethnic_groups_in_Indonesia]`_`f. Most residents are bilingual, speaking `F33f`_`[Indonesian`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Indonesian_language]`_`f (the official language of Indonesia) as their first or second language. While the majority of the people of Java are `F33f`_`[Muslim`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Muslims]`_`f, Java's population comprises people of diverse religious beliefs, ethnicities, and cultures.`:cite-ref-5[`F5bf`_`[4`#cite-note-5]`_`f]

Java is divided into four administrative provinces: `F33f`_`[Banten`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Banten]`_`f, `F33f`_`[West Java`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=West_Java]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Central Java`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Central_Java]`_`f, and `F33f`_`[East Java`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=East_Java]`_`f, and two special regions, `F33f`_`[Jakarta`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Jakarta]`_`f and `F33f`_`[Yogyakarta`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Special_Region_of_Yogyakarta]`_`f.

>>Contents

• `F0af`_`[Etymology`#etymology]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Geography`#geography]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Natural environment`#natural-environment]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[History`#history]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Homo erectus presence`#homo-erectus-presence]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[After the arrival of modern humans`#after-the-arrival-of-modern-humans]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Hindu–Buddhist kingdoms era`#hindu-buddhist-kingdoms-era]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Spread of Islam and rise of Islamic sultanates`#spread-of-islam-and-rise-of-islamic-sultanates]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Colonial periods`#colonial-periods]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Independence`#independence]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Administration`#administration]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Demographics`#demographics]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Demographic profile`#demographic-profile]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Population growth`#population-growth]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Ethnicity and culture`#ethnicity-and-culture]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Languages`#languages]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Religion`#religion]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Economy`#economy]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[See also`#see-also]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Notes`#notes]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[References`#references]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Bibliography`#bibliography]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[Further reading`#further-reading]`_`f

• `F0af`_`[External links`#external-links]`_`f

-─

>>Etymology

The origins of the name "Java" are not clear. The island could possibly have been named after the `F33f`_`[jáwa-wut`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Foxtail_millet]`_`f plant, which was said to be common in the island during the time, and that prior to Indianization the island had different names.`:cite-ref-6[`F5bf`_`[5`#cite-note-6]`_`f] There are other possible sources: the word `*jaú`* and its variations mean "beyond" or "distant".`:cite-ref-raffles-thomas-e-1965-page-3-7-0[`F5bf`_`[6`#cite-note-raffles-thomas-e-1965-page-3-7]`_`f] And, in `F33f`_`[Sanskrit`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Sanskrit]`_`f `*yava`* means barley, a plant for which the island was famous.`:cite-ref-raffles-thomas-e-1965-page-3-7-1[`F5bf`_`[6`#cite-note-raffles-thomas-e-1965-page-3-7]`_`f] "Yavadvipa" is mentioned in `F33f`_`[India`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=India]`_`f's earliest epic, the `F33f`_`[Ramayana`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Ramayana]`_`f. `F33f`_`[Sugriva`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Sugriva]`_`f, the chief of `F33f`_`[Rama`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Rama]`_`f's army, dispatched his men to Yavadvipa, the island of Java, in search of `F33f`_`[Sita`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Sita]`_`f.`:cite-ref-8[`F5bf`_`[7`#cite-note-8]`_`f] It was hence referred to in India by the Sanskrit name "yāvaka dvīpa" (dvīpa = island). Java is mentioned in the ancient `F33f`_`[Tamil`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Tamil_language]`_`f text `*`F33f`_`[Manimekalai`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Manimekalai]`_`f`* by `F33f`_`[Chithalai Chathanar`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Chithalai_Chathanar]`_`f which states that Java had a kingdom with a capital called Nagapuram.`:cite-ref-9[`F5bf`_`[8`#cite-note-9]`_`f]`:cite-ref-10[`F5bf`_`[9`#cite-note-10]`_`f]`:cite-ref-11[`F5bf`_`[10`#cite-note-11]`_`f] Another source states that the word "Java" is derived from a `F33f`_`[Proto-Austronesian`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Proto-Austronesian]`_`f root word, meaning "home".`:cite-ref-12[`F5bf`_`[11`#cite-note-12]`_`f] The great island of Iabadiu or Jabadiu was mentioned in `F33f`_`[Ptolemy`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Ptolemy]`_`f's `*`F33f`_`[Geographia`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Geography_(Ptolemy)]`_`f`* composed around 150 CE in the `F33f`_`[Roman Empire`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Roman_Empire]`_`f. `*Iabadiu`* is said to mean "barley island", to be rich in gold, and have a silver town called Argyra at the west end. The name indicates Java`:cite-ref-ancientgeo-13-0[`F5bf`_`[12`#cite-note-ancientgeo-13]`_`f] and seems to be derived from the Sanskrit name Java-dvipa (Yavadvipa).

The annual news of Songshu and Liangshu (5th century CE) referred to Java as 闍婆 (`*She-pó`* or `*She-bó`*), He-ling (640–818), then called it She-po again until the `F33f`_`[Yuan dynasty`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Yuan_dynasty]`_`f (1271–1368), where they began mentioning 爪哇 (`*Zhao-Wa`* or `*Chao-Wa`*).`:cite-ref-3-14-0[`F5bf`_`[13`#cite-note-3-14]`_`f] According to `F33f`_`[Ma Huan`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Ma_Huan]`_`f's book (the `F33f`_`[Yingya Shenlan`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Yingya_Shenglan]`_`f), the Chinese called Java Chao-Wa, and the island was called She-po in the past.`:cite-ref-15[`F5bf`_`[14`#cite-note-15]`_`f] Sulaiman al-Tajir al-Sirafi mentioned two notable islands which separated `F33f`_`[Arabia`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Arabian_Peninsula]`_`f and `F33f`_`[China`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=China]`_`f: One is the 800 `F33f`_`[farsakh`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Parasang]`_`f long Al-Rami, which is identified as Sumatra, and the other is `F33f`_`[Zabaj`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Zabaj]`_`f (Arabic: الزابج, `F33f`_`[Indonesian`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Indonesian_language]`_`f: Sabak), 400 farsakh in length, identified as Java.`:cite-ref-12-16-0[`F5bf`_`[15`#cite-note-12-16]`_`f] When `F33f`_`[John of Marignolli`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Giovanni_de'_Marignolli]`_`f returned from China to `F33f`_`[Avignon`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Avignon]`_`f, he stayed at the `F33f`_`[Kingdom of Saba`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Sheba]`_`f for a few months, which he said had many elephants and was led by a `F33f`_`[queen`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Tribhuwana_Wijayatunggadewi]`_`f; Saba may be his interpretation of She-bó.`*`:cite-ref-17[`F5bf`_`[16`#cite-note-17]`_`f]`* `F33f`_`[Afanasij Nikitin`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Afanasy_Nikitin]`_`f, a merchant from `F33f`_`[Tver`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Tver]`_`f (in Russia), traveled to India in 1466 and described the land of java, which he called шабайте (shabait/šabajte).`:cite-ref-18[`F5bf`_`[17`#cite-note-18]`_`f]`:cite-ref-19[`F5bf`_`[18`#cite-note-19]`_`f]

>>Geography

Java lies between `F33f`_`[Sumatra`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Sumatra]`_`f to the west and `F33f`_`[Bali`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Bali]`_`f to the east. `F33f`_`[Borneo`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Borneo]`_`f lies to the north, and `F33f`_`[Christmas Island`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Christmas_Island]`_`f is to the south. It is the world's 13th largest island. Java is surrounded by the `F33f`_`[Java Sea`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Java_Sea]`_`f to the north, the `F33f`_`[Sunda Strait`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Sunda_Strait]`_`f to the west, the `F33f`_`[Indian Ocean`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Indian_Ocean]`_`f to the south and `F33f`_`[Bali Strait`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Bali_Strait]`_`f`:cite-ref-20[`F5bf`_`[19`#cite-note-20]`_`f] and `F33f`_`[Madura Strait`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Madura_Strait]`_`f in the east.`:cite-ref-worldatlas-21-0[`F5bf`_`[20`#cite-note-worldatlas-21]`_`f]

Java is almost entirely of volcanic origin; it contains 38 mountains forming an east–west spine that have at one time or another been active volcanoes. There are 112 volcanoes in all, 35 of which are active. The highest volcano in Java is Mount `F33f`_`[Semeru`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Semeru]`_`f, 3,676 metres (12,060 ft). The most active volcano in Java and also in Indonesia is `F33f`_`[Mount Merapi`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Mount_Merapi]`_`f, 2,930 metres (9,610 ft).`:cite-ref-22[`F5bf`_`[21`#cite-note-22]`_`f] In total, Java has more than 150 mountains.`:cite-ref-23[`F5bf`_`[22`#cite-note-23]`_`f]

Java's mountains and highlands split the interior into a series of relatively isolated regions suitable for `F33f`_`[wet-rice`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Paddy_field]`_`f cultivation; the rice lands of Java are among the richest in the world.`:cite-ref-ricklefs-p15-24-0[`F5bf`_`[23`#cite-note-ricklefs-p15-24]`_`f] Java was the first place where `F33f`_`[Indonesian coffee`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Coffee_production_in_Indonesia]`_`f was grown, starting in 1699. Today, `F33f`_`[coffea arabica`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Coffea_arabica]`_`f is grown on the Ijen Plateau by small-holders and larger plantations.`:cite-ref-25[`F5bf`_`[24`#cite-note-25]`_`f]

The area of Java is about 132,598.77 square kilometres (51,196.67 sq mi) (including Madura's 5,408.45 square kilometres (2,088.21 sq mi) and minor offshore islands).`:cite-ref-ricklefs-p15-24-1[`F5bf`_`[23`#cite-note-ricklefs-p15-24]`_`f] It is about 1,000 km (620 mi) long and up to 210 km (130 mi) wide. The island's longest `F33f`_`[river`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=River]`_`f is the 600 km long `F33f`_`[Solo River`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Solo_River]`_`f.`:cite-ref-26[`F5bf`_`[25`#cite-note-26]`_`f] The river rises from its source in central Java at the `F33f`_`[Lawu`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Mount_Lawu]`_`f volcano, then flows north and eastward to its mouth in the Java Sea near the city of `F33f`_`[Surabaya`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Surabaya]`_`f. Other major rivers are `F33f`_`[Brantas`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Brantas_River]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Citarum`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Citarum_River]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Cimanuk`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Manuk_River]`_`f and `F33f`_`[Serayu`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Serayu_River]`_`f.

The average temperature ranges from 22 °C (72 °F) to 29 °C (84 °F); average humidity is 75%. The northern coastal plains are normally hotter, averaging 34 °C (93 °F) during the day in the `F33f`_`[dry season`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Dry_season]`_`f. The south coast is generally cooler than the north, and highland areas inland are even cooler.`:cite-ref-27[`F5bf`_`[26`#cite-note-27]`_`f] The `F33f`_`[wet season`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Wet_season]`_`f begins in November and ends in April. During that rain falls mostly in the afternoons and intermittently during other parts of the year. The wettest months are January and February.`:cite-ref-28[`F5bf`_`[27`#cite-note-28]`_`f]

West Java is wetter than `F33f`_`[East Java`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=East_Java]`_`f, and mountainous regions receive much higher rainfall. The `F33f`_`[Parahyangan`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Parahyangan]`_`f highlands of West Java receive over 4,000 millimetres (160 in) annually, while the north coast of East Java receives 900 millimetres (35 in) annually.

>>Natural environment

Java is an island with a large amount of biodiversity. The `F33f`_`[natural environment`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Natural_environment]`_`f of Java is `F33f`_`[tropical rainforest`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Tropical_rainforest]`_`f, with ecosystems ranging from coastal `F33f`_`[mangrove`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Mangrove]`_`f forest on the north coast, rocky coastal cliffs on the southern coast, and low-lying `F33f`_`[tropical forest`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Tropical_and_subtropical_moist_broadleaf_forests]`_`f to high altitude rainforest on the slopes of mountainous volcanic regions in the interior. The Javan environment and climate gradually alters from west to east; from wet and humid dense rainforest in western parts, to a dry `F33f`_`[savanna`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Savanna]`_`f environment in the east, corresponding to the climate and rainfall in these regions.

Javan wildlife originally supported a rich biodiversity, where numbers of `F33f`_`[endemic`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Endemism]`_`f species of flora and fauna flourished; such as the `F33f`_`[Javan rhinoceros`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Javan_rhinoceros]`_`f,`:cite-ref-29[`F5bf`_`[28`#cite-note-29]`_`f] `F33f`_`[Javan banteng`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Banteng]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Javan warty pig`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Javan_warty_pig]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Javan silvery gibbon`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Silvery_gibbon]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Javan lutung`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=East_Javan_langur]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Java mouse-deer`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Java_mouse-deer]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Javan rusa`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Javan_rusa]`_`f, and `F33f`_`[Javan leopard`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Javan_leopard]`_`f. With over 450 bird species and 37 endemic species including the `F33f`_`[Javan green magpie`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Javan_green_magpie]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Java sparrow`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Java_sparrow]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Javan hawk-eagle`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Javan_hawk-eagle]`_`f, and `F33f`_`[Javan peafowl`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Green_peafowl]`_`f, Java is a birdwatcher's paradise.`:cite-ref-30[`F5bf`_`[29`#cite-note-30]`_`f] There are about 130 freshwater fish species in Java.`:cite-ref-31[`F5bf`_`[30`#cite-note-31]`_`f] There are also several endemic `F33f`_`[amphibian species in Java`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=List_of_amphibians_of_Java]`_`f, including 5 species of `F33f`_`[tree frogs`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Rhacophoridae]`_`f.`:cite-ref-frost-32-0[`F5bf`_`[31`#cite-note-frost-32]`_`f]

Since ancient times, people have opened the rainforest, altered the ecosystem, shaped the landscapes and created `F33f`_`[rice paddy`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Paddy_field]`_`f and terraces to support the growing population. Javan rice terraces have existed for more than a millennium and had supported ancient agricultural kingdoms. The growing human population has put severe pressure on Java's wildlife, as rainforests were diminished and confined to highland slopes or isolated peninsulas. Some of Java's endemic species are now critically endangered, with some already extinct; Java used to have `F33f`_`[Javan tigers`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Javan_tiger]`_`f and `F33f`_`[Javan elephants`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Javan_elephant]`_`f, but both have been rendered extinct. Today, several national parks exist in Java that protect the remnants of its fragile wildlife, such as `F33f`_`[Ujung Kulon`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Ujung_Kulon_National_Park]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Mount Halimun-Salak`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Mount_Halimun_Salak_National_Park]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Gede Pangrango`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Gunung_Gede_Pangrango_National_Park]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Baluran`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Baluran_National_Park]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Meru Betiri`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Meru_Betiri_National_Park]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Bromo Tengger Semeru`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Bromo_Tengger_Semeru_National_Park]`_`f and `F33f`_`[Alas Purwo`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Alas_Purwo_National_Park]`_`f.

>>History

>>>Homo erectus presence

Fossilised remains of `*`F33f`_`[Homo erectus`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Homo_erectus]`_`f`*, popularly known as the "`F33f`_`[Java Man`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Java_Man]`_`f", dating back 1.3 million`:cite-ref-33[`F5bf`_`[32`#cite-note-33]`_`f] years were found along the banks of the `F33f`_`[Bengawan Solo River`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Solo_River]`_`f.`:cite-ref-34[`F5bf`_`[33`#cite-note-34]`_`f]

`*H. erectus`* arrived in Eurasia approximately 1.8 million years ago, in an event considered to be the first African exodus.`:cite-ref-35[`F5bf`_`[34`#cite-note-35]`_`f] There is evidence that the Java population of `*H. erectus`* lived in an ever-wet forest habitat. More specifically the environment resembled a `F33f`_`[savannah`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Savannah]`_`f, but was likely regularly inundated ("hydromorphic savanna"). The plants found at the Trinil excavation site included grass (`F33f`_`[Poaceae`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Poaceae]`_`f), `F33f`_`[ferns`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Fern]`_`f, `*`F33f`_`[Ficus`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Ficus]`_`f`*, and `*`F33f`_`[Indigofera`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Indigofera]`_`f`*, which are typical of lowland rainforest.`:cite-ref-36[`F5bf`_`[35`#cite-note-36]`_`f]

`F33f`_`[H. e. soloensis`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Solo_Man]`_`f was the last population of a long occupation history of the island of Java by `*H. erectus`*, beginning 1.51 to 0.93 million years ago at the Sangiran site, continuing 540 to 430 thousand years ago at the Trinil site, and finally 117 to 108 thousand years ago at Ngandong.`:cite-ref-37[`F5bf`_`[36`#cite-note-37]`_`f] If the date is correct for Solo Man, then they would represent a terminal population of `*H. erectus`* which sheltered in the last open-habitat refuges of East Asia before the rainforest takeover. Before the immigration of modern humans, Late Pleistocene Southeast Asia was also home to `*`F33f`_`[H. floresiensis`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Homo_floresiensis]`_`f`* endemic to the island of `F33f`_`[Flores`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Flores]`_`f, Indonesia, and `*`F33f`_`[H. luzonensis`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Homo_luzonensis]`_`f`* endemic to the island of `F33f`_`[Luzon`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Luzon]`_`f, the Philippines. Genetic analysis of present-day Southeast Asian populations indicates the widespread dispersal of the `F33f`_`[Denisovans`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Denisovans]`_`f (a species currently recognisable only by their genetic signature) across Southeast Asia, whereupon they interbred with immigrating modern humans 45.7 and 29.8 thousand years ago. A 2021 genomic study indicates that, aside from the Denisovans, modern humans never interbred with any of these endemic human species, unless the offspring were `F33f`_`[unviable`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Hybrid_incompatibility]`_`f or the hybrid lineages have since died out.

Judging by the sheer number of specimens deposited at Ngandong at the same time, there may have been a sizeable population of `*H. e soloensis`* before the volcanic eruption which resulted in their interment, but population is difficult to approximate with certainty. This site is quite far from the north coast of Java Island, and it is not always easy to determine the position of the coastline in prehistoric times because of significant geographical changes.`:cite-ref-38[`F5bf`_`[37`#cite-note-38]`_`f]

The southern coastline and estuary of the Bengawan Solo River at that time may have been different from what it is today, due to geological factors such as sedimentation, erosion, and changes in sea level over time. Currently, the estuary of the Bengawan Solo is in the Java Sea, but in prehistoric times, the river flow and estuary location may have changed. Geological and paleogeographic studies are often used to understand these changes.

>>>After the arrival of modern humans

The island's exceptional fertility and rainfall allowed the development of wet-field rice cultivation, which required sophisticated levels of cooperation between villages. Out of these village alliances, small kingdoms developed. The chain of volcanic mountains and associated highlands running the length of Java kept its interior regions and peoples separate and relatively isolated.`:cite-ref-39[`F5bf`_`[38`#cite-note-39]`_`f] Before the advent of Islamic states and European colonialism, the rivers provided the main means of communication, although Java's many rivers are mostly short. Only the `F33f`_`[Brantas river`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Brantas_River]`_`f and Solo river could provide long-distance communication and this way their valleys supported the centers of major kingdoms. A system of roads, permanent bridges, and toll gates is thought to have been established in Java by at least the mid-17th century. Local powers could disrupt the routes as could the wet season and road use was highly dependent on constant maintenance. Consequently, communication between Java's population was difficult.`:cite-ref-ricklefs-p15-24-2[`F5bf`_`[23`#cite-note-ricklefs-p15-24]`_`f]

The emergence of civilization on the island of Java is often associated with the arrival of `F33f`_`[Aji Saka`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Aji_Saka]`_`f in 78 AD. Although Aji Saka is said to be the bearer of civilization on Java, the story received several objections and rebuttals from other historical sources. Valmiki's `F33f`_`[Ramayana`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Ramayana]`_`f, made around 500 BC, records that Java already had a governmental organization long before the story:

`*"Yawadwipa is decorated with seven kingdoms, gold and silver islands, rich in gold mines, and there is Cicira (cold) Mountain that touches the sky with its peak."`:cite-ref-40[`F5bf`_`[39`#cite-note-40]`_`f]`*

The Greek geographer `F33f`_`[Ptolemy`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Ptolemy]`_`f called the island Iabadius or Sabadius (`F33f`_`[Ancient Greek`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Ancient_Greek_language]`_`f: Ιαβαδίου or Σαβαδίου).`:cite-ref-41[`F5bf`_`[40`#cite-note-41]`_`f]`:cite-ref-42[`F5bf`_`[41`#cite-note-42]`_`f] Ptolemy said that the name meant the "Island of Barley" and produced a lot of grain and gold, adding that its metropolis was Argyre (Ἀργυρῆ)`:cite-ref-43[`F5bf`_`[42`#cite-note-43]`_`f] meaning silver in Greek.`:cite-ref-44[`F5bf`_`[43`#cite-note-44]`_`f]

According to Chinese record `*`F33f`_`[Míng Shǐ`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=History_of_Ming]`_`f`*, the Javanese kingdom was founded in 65 BC, or 143 years before the story of Aji Saka began.`:cite-ref-45[`F5bf`_`[44`#cite-note-45]`_`f]

The story of Aji Saka is a Neo Javanese story. This story has not yet been found to be relevant in the Old Javanese text. This story tells of events in the Medang Kamulan kingdom in Java in the past. At that time, the king of Medang Kamulan Prabu Dewata Cengkar was replaced by Aji Saka. This story is considered as an allegory of the entry of Indians into Java. Referring to the `F33f`_`[Liang dynasty`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Liang_dynasty]`_`f information, the Javanese kingdom was divided into two: the pre-Hinduism kingdom and the post-Hindu kingdom, which began in 78 AD.`:cite-ref-12-16-1[`F5bf`_`[15`#cite-note-12-16]`_`f]

>>>Hindu–Buddhist kingdoms era

The `F33f`_`[Taruma`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Tarumanagara]`_`f kingdom of western Java existed from the 5th to the 7th centuries,`:cite-ref-coedes-46-0[`F5bf`_`[45`#cite-note-coedes-46]`_`f]`:cite-ref-casparis1975-47-0[`F5bf`_`[46`#cite-note-casparis1975-47]`_`f] while the `F33f`_`[Heling kingdom`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Heling_kingdom]`_`f sent embassies to China starting in 640.`:cite-ref-coedes-46-1[`F5bf`_`[45`#cite-note-coedes-46]`_`f] However, the first major principality was the `F33f`_`[Mataram Kingdom`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Mataram_Kingdom]`_`f that was founded in central Java at the beginning of the 8th century. Mataram's religion centered on the Hindu god `F33f`_`[Shiva`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Shiva]`_`f, and the kingdom produced some of Java's earliest Hindu temples on the `F33f`_`[Dieng Plateau`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Dieng_Plateau]`_`f. Around the 8th century, the `F33f`_`[Sailendra dynasty`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Shailendra_dynasty]`_`f rose in `F33f`_`[Kedu Plain`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Kedu_Plain]`_`f and become the patron of `F33f`_`[Mahayana`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Mahayana]`_`f `F33f`_`[Buddhism`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Buddhism]`_`f. This ancient kingdom built monuments such as the 9th century `F33f`_`[Borobudur`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Borobudur]`_`f and `F33f`_`[Prambanan`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Prambanan]`_`f in central Java.

Around the 10th century, the center of power shifted from central to eastern Java. The eastern Javanese kingdoms of `F33f`_`[Kediri`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Kediri_Kingdom]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Singhasari`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Singhasari]`_`f and `F33f`_`[Majapahit`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Majapahit]`_`f were mainly dependent on rice agriculture, yet also pursued trade within the Indonesian archipelago, and with China and India. Majapahit was established by `F33f`_`[Wijaya`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Raden_Wijaya]`_`f,`:cite-ref-coedes-46-2[`F5bf`_`[45`#cite-note-coedes-46]`_`f] and by the end of the reign of `F33f`_`[Hayam Wuruk`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Hayam_Wuruk]`_`f (r. 1350–89) it claimed sovereignty over the entire Indonesian archipelago, although control was likely limited to Java, Bali, and Madura. Hayam Wuruk's prime minister, `F33f`_`[Gajah Mada`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Gajah_Mada]`_`f, led many of the kingdom's territorial conquests.`:cite-ref-coedes-46-3[`F5bf`_`[45`#cite-note-coedes-46]`_`f] Previous Javanese kingdoms had their power based on agriculture, however, Majapahit took control of ports and shipping lanes and became Java's first commercial empire. With the death of Hayam Wuruk and the `F33f`_`[coming of Islam to Indonesia`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Spread_of_Islam_in_Indonesia]`_`f, Majapahit went into decline.`:cite-ref-coedes-46-4[`F5bf`_`[45`#cite-note-coedes-46]`_`f]

>>>Spread of Islam and rise of Islamic sultanates

Islam became the dominant religion in Java at the end of the 16th century. During this era, the Islamic kingdoms of `F33f`_`[Demak`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Demak_Sultanate]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Cirebon`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Sultanate_of_Cirebon]`_`f, and `F33f`_`[Banten`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Banten_Sultanate]`_`f were ascendant. The `F33f`_`[Mataram Sultanate`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Mataram_Sultanate]`_`f became the dominant power of central and eastern Java at the end of the 16th century. The principalities of Surabaya and Cirebon were eventually subjugated such that only Mataram and Banten were left to face the Dutch in the 17th century.

Java’s Islamic tradition is known for its tolerance and harmony among faiths. Local religious organizations actively promote peace and inclusivity, reflecting broader values of coexistence in Indonesian society.`:cite-ref-48[`F5bf`_`[47`#cite-note-48]`_`f]

>>>Colonial periods

Java's contact with the European colonial powers began in 1522 with `F33f`_`[a treaty`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Luso-Sundanese_padrão]`_`f between the Sunda kingdom and the `F33f`_`[Portuguese in Malacca`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Portuguese_Malacca]`_`f. After its failure, the `F33f`_`[Portuguese presence`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Portuguese_colonialism_in_the_East_Indies]`_`f was confined to Malacca and to the eastern islands. In 1596, a four-ship expedition led by `F33f`_`[Cornelis de Houtman`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Cornelis_de_Houtman]`_`f was the first Dutch contact with Indonesia.`:cite-ref-49[`F5bf`_`[48`#cite-note-49]`_`f] By the end of the 18th century the Dutch had extended their influence over the sultanates of the interior through the `F33f`_`[Dutch East India Company in Indonesia`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Dutch_East_India_Company_in_the_Malay_Archipelago]`_`f. Internal conflict prevented the Javanese from forming effective alliances against the Dutch. Remnants of the Mataram survived as the Surakarta (Solo) and Yogyakarta principalities. Javanese kings claimed to rule with divine authority and the Dutch helped them to preserve remnants of a Javanese aristocracy by confirming them as regents or district officials within the colonial administration.

Java's major role during the early part of the colonial period was as a producer of rice. In spice-producing islands like `F33f`_`[Banda`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Banda_Islands]`_`f, rice was regularly imported from Java, to supply the deficiency in means of subsistence.`:cite-ref-50[`F5bf`_`[49`#cite-note-50]`_`f]

During the `F33f`_`[Napoleonic wars`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Napoleonic_wars]`_`f in Europe, the `F33f`_`[Netherlands`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Netherlands]`_`f fell to `F33f`_`[France`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=France]`_`f, as did its colony in the `F33f`_`[East Indies`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=East_Indies]`_`f. During the short-lived `F33f`_`[Daendels`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Herman_Willem_Daendels]`_`f administration, as French proxy rule on Java, the construction of the `F33f`_`[Great Post Road`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Great_Post_Road]`_`f was commenced in 1808. The road, spanning from `F33f`_`[Anyer`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Anyer]`_`f in Western Java to Panarukan in East Java, served as a military supply route and was used in defending Java from British invasion.`:cite-ref-51[`F5bf`_`[50`#cite-note-51]`_`f] In 1811, Java was `F33f`_`[captured by the British`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Invasion_of_Java_(1811)]`_`f, becoming a possession of the `F33f`_`[British Empire`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=British_Empire]`_`f, and Sir `F33f`_`[Stamford Raffles`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Stamford_Raffles]`_`f was appointed as the island's governor. In 1816, under the governorship of `F33f`_`[John Fendall`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=John_Fendall_Jr.]`_`f, Java was returned to the Dutch as per the terms of the `F33f`_`[Treaty of Paris`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Treaty_of_Paris_(1814)]`_`f.`:cite-ref-52[`F5bf`_`[51`#cite-note-52]`_`f]`:cite-ref-53[`F5bf`_`[52`#cite-note-53]`_`f]

In 1815, there may have been five million people in Java.`:cite-ref-54[`F5bf`_`[53`#cite-note-54]`_`f] In the second half of the 18th century, population spurts began in districts along the north-central coast of Java, and in the 19th century population grew rapidly across the island. Factors for the great population growth include the impact of Dutch colonial rule including the imposed end to civil war in Java, the increase in the area under rice cultivation, and the introduction of food plants such as `F33f`_`[cassava`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Cassava]`_`f and `F33f`_`[maize`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Maize]`_`f that could sustain populations that could not afford rice.`:cite-ref-55[`F5bf`_`[54`#cite-note-55]`_`f] Others attribute the growth to the taxation burdens and increased expansion of employment under the `F33f`_`[Cultivation System`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Cultivation_System]`_`f to which couples responded by having more children in the hope of increasing their families’ ability to pay tax and buy goods.`:cite-ref-56[`F5bf`_`[55`#cite-note-56]`_`f] `F33f`_`[Cholera`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Cholera]`_`f claimed 100,000 lives in Java in 1820.`:cite-ref-57[`F5bf`_`[56`#cite-note-57]`_`f]

The advent of trucks and railways where there had previously only been buffalo and carts, telegraph systems, and more coordinated distribution systems under the colonial government all contributed to famine elimination in Java, and in turn, population growth. There were no significant famines in Java from the 1840s through to the `F33f`_`[Japanese occupation`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies]`_`f in the 1940s.`:cite-ref-taylor-2003-p-254-58-0[`F5bf`_`[57`#cite-note-taylor-2003-p-254-58]`_`f] However, other sources claimed the Dutch's Cultivation system is linked to famines and epidemics in the 1840s, firstly in `F33f`_`[Cirebon`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Cirebon]`_`f and then `F33f`_`[Central Java`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Central_Java]`_`f, as cash crops such as indigo and sugar had to be grown instead of rice.

>>>Independence

`F33f`_`[Indonesian`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Indonesia]`_`f nationalism first took hold in Java in the early 20th century, and `F33f`_`[the struggle to secure the country's independence`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Indonesian_National_Revolution]`_`f following `F33f`_`[World War II`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=World_War_II]`_`f was centered in Java. In 1949, Indonesian independence was recognized.

>>Administration

Java is divided into four `F33f`_`[provinces`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Provinces_of_Indonesia]`_`f and two special regions:`:cite-ref-worldatlas-21-1[`F5bf`_`[20`#cite-note-worldatlas-21]`_`f]

• `F33f`_`[Banten`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Banten]`_`f, capital: `F33f`_`[Serang`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Serang]`_`f

• `F33f`_`[Special Capital Region of Jakarta`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Jakarta]`_`f, capital: `F33f`_`[Central Jakarta`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Central_Jakarta]`_`f (`*de facto`*)

• `F33f`_`[West Java`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=West_Java]`_`f, capital: `F33f`_`[Bandung`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Bandung]`_`f

• `F33f`_`[Central Java`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Central_Java]`_`f, capital: `F33f`_`[Semarang`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Semarang]`_`f

• `F33f`_`[Special Region of Yogyakarta`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Special_Region_of_Yogyakarta]`_`f, capital: `F33f`_`[Yogyakarta`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Yogyakarta]`_`f

• `F33f`_`[East Java`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=East_Java]`_`f, capital: `F33f`_`[Surabaya`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Surabaya]`_`f (which province also includes `F33f`_`[Madura Island`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Madura_Island]`_`f)

`t

| Province or Special Region | Map | Capital | Area km 2 | Area % | Population census 2000 [ 58 ] | Population census 2010 [ 59 ] | Population census 2020 [ 60 ] | Population estimate mid 2024 [ 61 ] | Population density mid 2024 |

|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|

| Banten | | Serang | 9,352.77 | 6.88 | 8,098,277 | 10,632,166 | 11,904,562 | 12,431,390 | 1,329 |

| Special Region of Jakarta | | Central Jakarta ( de facto ) | 660.98 | 0.50 | 8,361,079 | 9,607,787 | 10,562,088 | 10,684,946 | 16,165 |

| West Java | | Bandung | 37,040.04 | 27.93 | 35,724,093 | 43,053,732 | 48,274,160 | 50,345,189 | 1,359 |

| Western Java (3 areas above) | | | 47,053.79 | 35.49 | 52,183,449 | 63,293,685 | 70,740,810 | 73,461,525 | 1,561 |

| Central Java | | Semarang | 34,337.49 | 25.90 | 31,223,258 | 32,382,657 | 36,516,035 | 37,892,280 | 1,104 |

| Yogyakarta Special Region | | Yogyakarta | 3,170.65 | 2.39 | 3,121,045 | 3,457,491 | 3,668,719 | 3,759,500 | 1,186 |

| Central Java Region (2 areas above) | | | 37,508.14 | 28.29 | 34,344,303 | 35,840,148 | 40,184,754 | 41,651,780 | 1,110 |

| East Java | | Surabaya | 48,036.84 | 36.23 | 34,765,993 | 37,476,757 | 40,665,696 | 41,814,499 | 870 |

| Region Administered as Java | | Jakarta | 132,598.77 | 100% | 121,293,745 | 136,610,590 | 151,591,260 | 156,927,804 | 1,183 |

| Madura Island (1) of East Java | | – | 5,408.45 | 4.08 | 3,230,300 | 3,622,763 | 4,004,564 | 4,156,661 | 769 |

| Java Island (2) | | – | 127,190.32 | 95.92 | 118,063,445 | 132,987,827 | 147,586,696 | 152,771,143 | 1,201 |

`t

(1) including the neighbouring small archipelagos of the `F33f`_`[Kangean Islands`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Kangean_Islands]`_`f (648.55 km2), the `F33f`_`[Sapudi Islands`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Sapudi_Islands]`_`f (167.41 km2), `F33f`_`[Talango Island`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Talango_Island]`_`f (50.278 km2), `F33f`_`[Masalembu`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Masalembu]`_`f (40.85 km2), the `F33f`_`[Giligenteng Islands`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Gili_Genteng]`_`f (30.32 km2) - all the foregoing within `F33f`_`[Sumenep Regency`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Sumenep_Regency]`_`f.

(2) Other offshore islands are included in this figure, but are comparatively very small in population and area; they include `F33f`_`[Nusa Barong`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Nusa_Barong]`_`f (84.73 km2), `F33f`_`[Bawean`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Bawean]`_`f (197.42 km2), `F33f`_`[Karimunjawa`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Karimunjawa]`_`f (78 km2), `F33f`_`[Nusa Kambangan`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Nusa_Kambangan]`_`f (121 km2), `F33f`_`[Panaitan`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Panaitan]`_`f (170 km2), and the `F33f`_`[Thousand Islands`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Thousand_Islands_Regency]`_`f (8.7 km2) – with a combined population of roughly 150,000 (of whom 85,320 are on Bawean, 28,809 are on the Thousand Islands, 16,200 on Nusa Barong and 10,800 on Karimunjawa).

(3) Land area of provinces updated in mid 2024 regency/city annual statistics.

>>Demographics

>>>Demographic profile

Java has been traditionally dominated by an elite class, while the people in the lower classes were often involved in agriculture and fishing. The elite class in Java has evolved over the course of history, as cultural wave after cultural wave immigrated to the island. There is evidence that South Asian emigres were among this elite, as well as Arabian and Persian immigrants during the Islamic eras. More recently, Chinese immigrants have also become part of the economic elite of Java. Although politically the Chinese generally remain sidelined, there are notable exceptions, such as the former governor of Jakarta, `F33f`_`[Basuki Tjahaja Purnama`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Basuki_Tjahaja_Purnama]`_`f. Java houses the majority of Indonesia's urban population. Currently, 65% of the island is urbanized. Unlike the rest of Java, the population growth in Central Java remains low. Central Java however has a younger population than the national average.`:cite-ref-64[`F5bf`_`[63`#cite-note-64]`_`f] The slow population growth can in part be attributed to the choice by many people to leave the more rural Central Java for better opportunities and higher incomes in the bigger cities.`:cite-ref-65[`F5bf`_`[64`#cite-note-65]`_`f] Java's population continues to rapidly increase despite many Javanese leaving the island. This is somewhat due to the fact that Java is the business, academic, and cultural hub of Indonesia, which attracts millions of non-Javanese people to its cities. The population growth is most intense in the regions surrounding `F33f`_`[Jakarta`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Jakarta]`_`f and `F33f`_`[Bandung`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Bandung]`_`f, which is reflected through the demographic diversity in those areas.

>>>Population growth

Java is the `F33f`_`[most populous major island in the world`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=List_of_islands_by_population]`_`f and is home to 55% of Indonesia's population, with a combined population of 156.9 million according to the official estimates as at mid 2024 (including Madura's 4.16 million).`:cite-ref-jktpos-66-0[`F5bf`_`[65`#cite-note-jktpos-66]`_`f] At nearly 1,183.5 people per km2 in 2024, it is also one of the most densely populated parts of the world, on a par with `F33f`_`[Bangladesh`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Bangladesh]`_`f. Every region of the island has numerous volcanoes, with the people left to share the remaining flatter land. Because of this, many coasts are heavily populated and cities ring around the valleys surrounding volcanic peaks.

The population growth rate more than doubled in economically depressed Central Java in the latest 2010–2020 period vs 2000–2010, indicative of migration or other issues; there were significant `F33f`_`[volcanic eruptions`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Mount_Merapi]`_`f during the earlier period. Approximately 45% of the population of Indonesia is ethnically Javanese,`:cite-ref-67[`F5bf`_`[66`#cite-note-67]`_`f] while Sundanese make a large portion of Java's population as well.

The western third of the island (West Java, Banten, and DKI Jakarta) has an even higher population density, of roughly 1,563 per square kilometre and accounts for most of the population growth of Java.`:cite-ref-jktpos-66-1[`F5bf`_`[65`#cite-note-jktpos-66]`_`f] It is home to three metropolitan areas, `F33f`_`[Greater Jakarta`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Greater_Jakarta]`_`f (with outlying areas of Greater `F33f`_`[Serang`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Serang]`_`f and Greater `F33f`_`[Sukabumi`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Sukabumi]`_`f), `F33f`_`[Greater Bandung`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Bandung_Metropolitan_Area]`_`f, and Greater `F33f`_`[Cirebon`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Cirebon]`_`f.

From the 1970s to the fall of the `F33f`_`[Suharto`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Suharto]`_`f regime in 1998, the Indonesian government ran `F33f`_`[transmigration programs`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Transmigration_program]`_`f aimed at resettling the population of Java on other less populated islands of Indonesia. This program has met with mixed results, sometimes causing conflicts between the locals and the recently arrived `F33f`_`[settlers`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Settler]`_`f. Nevertheless, it has caused Java's share of the nation's population to progressively decline.

Jakarta and its outskirts, being the dominant metropolis, is also home to people from all over the nation. East Java is also home to ethnic Balinese, as well as large numbers of Madurans due to their historic poverty.

>>>Ethnicity and culture

Despite its large population and in contrast to the other larger islands of Indonesia, Java is comparatively homogeneous in ethnic composition. Only two ethnic groups are native to the island—the `F33f`_`[Javanese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Javanese_people]`_`f and `F33f`_`[Sundanese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Sundanese_people]`_`f. A third group is the `F33f`_`[Madurese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Madurese_people]`_`f, who inhabit the island of `F33f`_`[Madura`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Madura_Island]`_`f off the northeast coast of Java and have immigrated to `F33f`_`[East Java`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=East_Java]`_`f in large numbers since the 18th century.`:cite-ref-periplus58-68-0[`F5bf`_`[67`#cite-note-periplus58-68]`_`f] The Javanese comprise about two-thirds of the island's population while the Sundanese and Madurese account for 38% and 10% respectively.`:cite-ref-periplus58-68-1[`F5bf`_`[67`#cite-note-periplus58-68]`_`f] The fourth group is the `F33f`_`[Betawi people`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Betawi_people]`_`f who speak a dialect of `F33f`_`[Malay`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Malay_language]`_`f. They are the descendants of the people living around `F33f`_`[Batavia`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Jakarta]`_`f from around the 17th century. Betawis are `F33f`_`[creole people`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Creole_people]`_`f, mostly descended from various Indonesian archipelago ethnic groups such as `F33f`_`[Malay`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Ethnic_Malay]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Sundanese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Sundanese_people]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Javanese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Javanese_people]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Balinese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Balinese_people]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Minang`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Minangkabau_people]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Bugis`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Bugis_people]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Makassar`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Makassar_people]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Ambonese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Ambonese_people]`_`f, mixed with foreign ethnic groups such as `F33f`_`[Portuguese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Portuguese_people]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Dutch`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Dutch_people]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Arab`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Arab]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Chinese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Chinese_people]`_`f and `F33f`_`[Indian`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Indian_people]`_`f brought to or attracted to Batavia to meet labour needs. They have a culture and language distinct from the surrounding `F33f`_`[Sundanese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Sundanese_people]`_`f and `F33f`_`[Javanese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Javanese_people]`_`f.

The Javanese prose text `F33f`_`[Tantu Pagelaran`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Tantu_Pagelaran]`_`f (c. 15th century) explained the mythical origin of the island and its volcanic nature.

Four major cultural areas exist on the island:

1. The heartland of the Javanese people in the central part of Java with `F33f`_`[Yogyakarta`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Yogyakarta]`_`f as its cultural center;

2. the `F33f`_`[Pasisir`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Pasisir]`_`f region (from `F33f`_`[Javanese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Javanese_language]`_`f: ꦥꦱꦶꦱꦶꦂ, `F33f`_`[lit.`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Literal_translation]`_`f 'shore, coast') on the northern coast, home to the first Muslim sultanate in Indonesia;

3. the `F33f`_`[Sunda`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Sundanese_people]`_`f lands (`F33f`_`[Sundanese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Sundanese_language]`_`f: ᮒᮒᮁ ᮞᮥᮔ᮪ᮓ, `*Tatar`* `*Sunda`*) in the western part of Java with `F33f`_`[Parahyangan`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Parahyangan]`_`f as their heartland;

4. the `F33f`_`[eastern salient of Java`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Eastern_salient_of_Java]`_`f, also known as `F33f`_`[Blambangan`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Banyuwangi]`_`f, consisting of the `F33f`_`[Blambangan Peninsual`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Blambangan_Peninsula]`_`f east of the Tengger Massif.

Madura makes up a fifth area having close cultural ties with coastal eastern Java.`:cite-ref-periplus58-68-2[`F5bf`_`[67`#cite-note-periplus58-68]`_`f]

The `*kejawen of Javanese`* culture is the island's most dominant. Java's remaining aristocracy is based here, and it is the region from where the majority of Indonesia's army, business, and political elite originate. Its language, arts, and etiquette are regarded as the island's most refined and exemplary.`:cite-ref-periplus58-68-3[`F5bf`_`[67`#cite-note-periplus58-68]`_`f] The territory from `F33f`_`[Banyumas`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Banyumas_Regency]`_`f in the west through to `F33f`_`[Blitar`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Blitar]`_`f in the east encompasses Indonesia's most fertile and densely populated agricultural land.`*`:cite-ref-periplus58-68-4[`F5bf`_`[67`#cite-note-periplus58-68]`_`f]`*

In the southwestern part of Central Java, which is usually named the `F33f`_`[Banyumasan`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Banyumas_Regency]`_`f region, a cultural mingling occurred, bringing together Javanese culture and Sundanese culture to create the `F33f`_`[Banyumasan`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Banyumasan_language]`_`f culture.`:cite-ref-69[`F5bf`_`[68`#cite-note-69]`_`f] In the central Javanese court cities of `F33f`_`[Yogyakarta`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Yogyakarta_(city)]`_`f and `F33f`_`[Surakarta`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Surakarta]`_`f, contemporary kings trace their lineages back to the pre-colonial Islamic kingdoms that ruled the region, making those places especially strong repositories of classical Javanese culture. Classic arts of Java include `F33f`_`[gamelan`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Gamelan]`_`f music and `F33f`_`[wayang`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Wayang]`_`f puppet shows.`:cite-ref-70[`F5bf`_`[69`#cite-note-70]`_`f]

Java was the site of many influential kingdoms in the Southeast Asian region,`:cite-ref-71[`F5bf`_`[70`#cite-note-71]`_`f] and as a result, many literary works have been written by Javanese authors. These include `*`F33f`_`[Ken Arok`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Ken_Arok]`_`f and `F33f`_`[Ken Dedes`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Ken_Dedes]`_`f`*, the story of the orphan who usurped his king, and married the queen of the ancient Javanese kingdom; and translations of `*`F33f`_`[Ramayana`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Ramayana]`_`f`* and `*`F33f`_`[Mahabharata`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Mahabharata]`_`f`*. `F33f`_`[Pramoedya Ananta Toer`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Pramoedya_Ananta_Toer]`_`f is a famous contemporary Indonesian author who has written many stories based on his own experiences of having grown up in Java and takes many elements from Javanese folklore and historical legends.

>>>Languages

The three major languages spoken on Java are `F33f`_`[Javanese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Javanese_language]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Sundanese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Sundanese_language]`_`f and `F33f`_`[Madurese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Madurese_language]`_`f. Other languages spoken include `F33f`_`[Betawi`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Betawi_language]`_`f (a `F33f`_`[Malay`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Malay_language]`_`f dialect local to the Jakarta region), `F33f`_`[Osing`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Osing_language]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Banyumasan`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Banyumasan_language]`_`f, and `F33f`_`[Tenggerese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Tenggerese_people]`_`f (closely related to Javanese), `F33f`_`[Baduy`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Baduy_language]`_`f and `F33f`_`[Bantenese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Bantenese_language]`_`f (closely related to Sundanese), `F33f`_`[Kangeanese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Kangean_language]`_`f (closely related to Madurese), and `F33f`_`[Balinese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Balinese_language]`_`f.`:cite-ref-72[`F5bf`_`[71`#cite-note-72]`_`f] The vast majority of the population also speaks `F33f`_`[Indonesian`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Indonesian_language]`_`f, often as a second language.`:cite-ref-73[`F5bf`_`[72`#cite-note-73]`_`f]

>>>Religion

`F33f`_`[Indian`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=South_Asia]`_`f influences came first with `F33f`_`[Shaivism`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Shaivism]`_`f and `F33f`_`[Buddhism`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Buddhism]`_`f penetrating deeply into society, blending with indigenous tradition and culture.`:cite-ref-kroef1961-75-0[`F5bf`_`[74`#cite-note-kroef1961-75]`_`f] One `F33f`_`[conduit`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Conduit_(spiritualism)]`_`f for this were the `F33f`_`[ascetics`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Asceticism]`_`f, called `*resi`*, who taught mystical practices. A `*resi`* lived surrounded by students, who took care of their master's daily needs. Resi's authorities were merely ceremonial. At the courts, `F33f`_`[Brahmin`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Brahmin]`_`f clerics and `*pudjangga`* (sacred literati) legitimised rulers and linked `F33f`_`[Hindu`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Hinduism]`_`f cosmology to their political needs.`:cite-ref-kroef1961-75-1[`F5bf`_`[74`#cite-note-kroef1961-75]`_`f] Small `F33f`_`[Hindu`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Hindu]`_`f enclaves are scattered throughout Java, but there is a large `F33f`_`[Hindu`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Hindu]`_`f population along the eastern coast nearest `F33f`_`[Bali`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Bali]`_`f, especially around the town of `F33f`_`[Banyuwangi`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Banyuwangi]`_`f.

`t

| Religions | Total |

|---|---|

| Islam | 151,001,350 |

| Protestantism | 3,551,176 |

| Roman Catholicism | 1,677,824 |

| Buddhism | 755,560 |

| Hinduism | 168,055 |

| Aliran Kepercayaan | 21,855 |

| Confucianism | 20,303 |

| Overall | 157,196,123 |

`t

`:cite-ref-religion-74-1[`F5bf`_`[73`#cite-note-religion-74]`_`f]

The coming of `F33f`_`[Islam`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Islam]`_`f, strengthened the status structure of this traditional religious pattern. More than 98 percent of the `F33f`_`[Muslims`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Muslims]`_`f in Java are `F33f`_`[Sunnis`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Sunni]`_`f with very minority being `F33f`_`[Shia`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Shia]`_`f and `F33f`_`[Ahmadis`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Ahmadis]`_`f (respectively 1% and 0.2%), on a broad continuum between `*`F33f`_`[abangan`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Abangan]`_`f`* (more syncretic) and `*`F33f`_`[santri`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Santri]`_`f`* (more orthodox). Muslim scholars (`*`F33f`_`[Kyai`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Kyai]`_`f`*) became the new religious elite as Hindu influences receded. Islam recognises no hierarchy of religious leaders nor a formal `F33f`_`[priesthood`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Clergy]`_`f, but the `F33f`_`[Dutch colonial government`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Dutch_East_India_Company]`_`f established an elaborate rank order for mosque and other Islamic preaching schools. In Javanese `*`F33f`_`[pesantren`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Pesantren]`_`f`* (Islamic schools), the `*Kyai`* perpetuated the tradition of the `*resi`*. Students around him provided his needs, even `F33f`_`[peasants`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Peasant]`_`f around the school.`:cite-ref-kroef1961-75-2[`F5bf`_`[74`#cite-note-kroef1961-75]`_`f]

Pre-Islamic Javan traditions have encouraged Islam in a mystical direction. There emerged in Java a loosely structured society of religious leadership, revolving around `*kyais`*, possessing various degrees of proficiency in pre-Islamic and Islamic `F33f`_`[lore`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Folklore]`_`f, `F33f`_`[belief`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Belief]`_`f and practice.`:cite-ref-kroef1961-75-3[`F5bf`_`[74`#cite-note-kroef1961-75]`_`f] The kyais are the principal intermediaries between the villages masses and the realm of the `F33f`_`[supernatural`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Supernatural]`_`f. However, this very looseneess of kyai leadership structure has promoted `F33f`_`[schism`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Schism_(religion)]`_`f. There were often sharp divisions between orthodox kyais, who merely instructed in Islamic law, with those who taught `F33f`_`[mysticism`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Mysticism]`_`f and those who sought to reform Islam with modern scientific concepts. As a result, there is a division between `*santri`*, who believe that they are more orthodox in their Islamic belief and practice, with `*`F33f`_`[abangan`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Abangan]`_`f`*, who have mixed pre-Islamic `F33f`_`[animistic`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Animism]`_`f and Hindu-Indian concepts with a superficial acceptance of Islamic belief.`:cite-ref-kroef1961-75-4[`F5bf`_`[74`#cite-note-kroef1961-75]`_`f]

There are also `F33f`_`[Christian`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Christians]`_`f communities, mostly in the larger cities, primarily among `F33f`_`[Chinese Indonesian`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Chinese_Indonesian]`_`f and minority `F33f`_`[Javanese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Javanese_people]`_`f even some rural areas of south-central Java are strongly `F33f`_`[Roman Catholic`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Catholic_Church]`_`f. `F33f`_`[Buddhist`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Buddhism]`_`f communities also exist in the major cities, primarily among the `F33f`_`[Chinese Indonesian`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Chinese_Indonesian]`_`f. The Indonesian constitution recognises six official religions.

A wider effect of this division is the number of sects. In the middle of 1956, the Department of Religious Affairs in `F33f`_`[Yogyakarta`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Yogyakarta]`_`f reported 63 religious sects in Java other than the official Indonesian religions. Of these, 35 were in `F33f`_`[Central Java`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Central_Java]`_`f, 22 in `F33f`_`[West Java`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=West_Java]`_`f and six in `F33f`_`[East Java`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=East_Java]`_`f.`:cite-ref-kroef1961-75-5[`F5bf`_`[74`#cite-note-kroef1961-75]`_`f] These include `F33f`_`[Kejawen`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Javanese_beliefs]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Sumarah`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Javanese_beliefs]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Subud`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Subud]`_`f, etc. Their total membership is difficult to estimate as many of their adherents identify themselves with one of the official religions.`:cite-ref-beatty-76-0[`F5bf`_`[75`#cite-note-beatty-76]`_`f] `F33f`_`[Sunda Wiwitan`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Sunda_Wiwitan]`_`f is a traditional `F33f`_`[Sundanese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Sundanese_people]`_`f religion, its adherents still exist in several villages.`:cite-ref-77[`F5bf`_`[76`#cite-note-77]`_`f]

>>Economy

Initially the economy of Java relied heavily on `F33f`_`[rice`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Rice]`_`f agriculture. Ancient kingdoms such as the `F33f`_`[Kingdoms of Sunda`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Kingdoms_of_Sunda]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Mataram`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Mataram_Kingdom]`_`f, and `F33f`_`[Majapahit`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Majapahit]`_`f were dependent on rice yields and tax. Java was famous for rice surpluses and rice export since ancient times, and rice agriculture contributed to the population growth of the island. Trade with other parts of Asia such as ancient India and China flourished as early as the 4th century, as evidenced by Chinese ceramics found on the island dated to that period. Java also took part in the global trade of `F33f`_`[Maluku`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Maluku_Islands]`_`f `F33f`_`[spice`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Spice]`_`f from ancient times in the Majapahit era, until well into the `F33f`_`[Dutch East India Company`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Dutch_East_India_Company]`_`f (VOC) era.`:cite-ref-78[`F5bf`_`[77`#cite-note-78]`_`f]

The VOC set their foothold on `F33f`_`[Batavia`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Batavia,_Dutch_East_Indies]`_`f in the 17th century and was succeeded by the `F33f`_`[Dutch East Indies`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Dutch_East_Indies]`_`f in the 19th century. During these colonial times, the Dutch introduced the cultivation of commercial plants in Java, such as `F33f`_`[sugarcane`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Sugarcane]`_`f, `F33f`_`[rubber`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Rubber]`_`f, `F33f`_`[coffee`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Coffee]`_`f, `F33f`_`[tea`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Tea]`_`f, and `F33f`_`[quinine`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Quinine]`_`f. In the 19th and early 20th century, Javanese coffee gained global popularity. Thus, the name "Java" today has become a synonym for coffee.`:cite-ref-79[`F5bf`_`[78`#cite-note-79]`_`f]`:cite-ref-80[`F5bf`_`[79`#cite-note-80]`_`f]`:cite-ref-81[`F5bf`_`[80`#cite-note-81]`_`f]`:cite-ref-82[`F5bf`_`[81`#cite-note-82]`_`f]

Java has been Indonesia's most developed island since the Dutch East Indies era and continues to be so today in the modern Republic of Indonesia. The road transportation networks that have existed since ancient times were connected and perfected with the construction of `F33f`_`[Java Great Post Road`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Great_Post_Road]`_`f by `F33f`_`[Daendels`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Daendels]`_`f in the early 19th century. It became the backbone of Java's road infrastructure and laid the base of `F33f`_`[Java North Coast Road`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=North_Coast_Road_(Java)]`_`f (`F33f`_`[Indonesian`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Indonesian_language]`_`f: `*Jalan Pantura, abbreviation from "Pantai Utara"`*). The need to transport commercial produces such as coffee from plantations in the interior of the island to the harbour on the coast spurred the construction of railway networks in Java. Today, industry, business, trade and services flourished in major cities of Java, such as `F33f`_`[Jakarta`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Jakarta]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Surabaya`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Surabaya]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Semarang`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Semarang]`_`f, and `F33f`_`[Bandung`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Bandung]`_`f; while some traditional Sultanate cities such as `F33f`_`[Yogyakarta`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Yogyakarta]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Surakarta`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Surakarta]`_`f, and `F33f`_`[Cirebon`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Cirebon]`_`f preserved its royal legacy and has become the centre of art, culture and tourism. Industrial estates are also growing in towns on northern coast of Java, especially around `F33f`_`[Cilegon`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Cilegon]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Tangerang`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Tangerang]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Bekasi`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Bekasi]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Karawang`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Karawang]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Gresik`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Gresik]`_`f and `F33f`_`[Sidoarjo`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Sidoarjo]`_`f. The `F33f`_`[toll road`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Toll_road]`_`f highway networks was built and expanded since the New Order until the present day, connecting major urban centres and surrounding areas, such as in and around `F33f`_`[Jakarta`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Jakarta]`_`f and `F33f`_`[Bandung`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Bandung]`_`f; also the ones in `F33f`_`[Cirebon`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Cirebon]`_`f, `F33f`_`[Semarang`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Semarang]`_`f and `F33f`_`[Surabaya`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Surabaya]`_`f. In addition to these motorways, Java has 16 national highways.

Based on the statistical data by the year of 2021 released by `F33f`_`[Statistics Indonesia`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Statistics_Indonesia]`_`f (`*Badan Pusat Statistik`*), Java alone contributes around 60% of Indonesia's GDP or equivalent to US$686 billion (int$2.0 trillion, PPP).`:cite-ref-bps-83-0[`F5bf`_`[82`#cite-note-bps-83]`_`f]

>>See also

• `F33f`_`[History of Indonesia`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=History_of_Indonesia]`_`f

• `F33f`_`[List of monarchs of Java`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=List_of_monarchs_of_Java]`_`f

>>Notes

`:cite-note-2`!a.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-2]`_`f /ˈdʒɑːvə, ˈdʒævə/;`:cite-ref-1[`F5bf`_`[1`#cite-note-1]`_`f] `F33f`_`[Indonesian`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Indonesian_language]`_`f: `*Jawa`*, pronounced [ˈdʒawa]; `F33f`_`[Javanese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Javanese_language]`_`f: ꦗꦮ; `F33f`_`[Sundanese`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Sundanese_language]`_`f: ᮏᮝ

>>References

`:cite-note-1`!1.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-1]`_`f "Java". `*`F33f`_`[Dictionary.com Unabridged`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Dictionary.com]`_`f`* (Online). n.d. Retrieved 2022-09-26.

`:cite-note-3`!2.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-3]`_`f "Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2020" (PDF) (in Indonesian). `F33f`_`[Statistics Indonesia`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Statistics_Indonesia]`_`f. 21 January 2021. p. 9. Retrieved 21 January 2021.

`:cite-note-4`!3.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-4]`_`f `:citerefnaimsyaputra2011`aNaim, Akhsan; Syaputra, Hendry (2011). `*Kewarganegaraan, Suku Bangsa, Agama, dan Bahasa Sehari-Hari Penduduk Indonesia: Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2010`* (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Badan Pusat Statistik. p. 47. `F33f`_`[ISBN`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=ISBN_(identifier)]`_`f 9789790644175.

`:cite-note-5`!4.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-5]`_`f `:citerefstockdalebastin2004`aStockdale, John Joseph; Bastin, John (2004-03-15). `*Island of Java`*. Periplus Editions (HK) Limited. `F33f`_`[ISBN`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=ISBN_(identifier)]`_`f 978-962-8734-23-8.

`:cite-note-6`!5.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-6]`_`f Raffles, Thomas E.: `*`F33f`_`[History of Java`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=The_History_of_Java_(1817_book)]`_`f`*. Oxford University Press, 1965, p. 2.

`:cite-note-raffles-thomas-e-1965-page-3-7`!6.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-raffles-thomas-e-1965-page-3-7-0]`_`f Raffles, Thomas E.: `*`F33f`_`[History of Java`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=The_History_of_Java_(1817_book)]`_`f`*. Oxford University Press, 1965, p. 3.

`:cite-note-8`!7.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-8]`_`f `*History Of Ancient India (portraits Of A Nation), 1/e`*. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. January 30, 2010. `F33f`_`[ISBN`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=ISBN_(identifier)]`_`f 9788120749108 – via Google Books.

`:cite-note-9`!8.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-9]`_`f Hindu culture in ancient India by Sekharipuram Vaidyanatha Viswanatha, p. 177.

`:cite-note-10`!9.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-10]`_`f Tamil Literature by M. S. Purnalingam Pillai, p. 46.

`:cite-note-11`!10.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-11]`_`f The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago by V. Kanakasabhai, p. 11.

`:cite-note-12`!11.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-12]`_`f Hatley, R., Schiller, J., Lucas, A., Martin-Schiller, B., (1984). "Mapping cultural regions of Java" in: Other Javas away from the kraton. pp. 1–32.

`:cite-note-ancientgeo-13`!12.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-ancientgeo-13-0]`_`f `:citerefj-oliver-thomson2013`aJ. Oliver Thomson (2013). `*History of Ancient Geography`*. `F33f`_`[Cambridge University Press`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Cambridge_University_Press]`_`f. pp. 316–317. `F33f`_`[ISBN`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=ISBN_(identifier)]`_`f 9781107689923.

`:cite-note-3-14`!13.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-3-14-0]`_`f Lombard, Denys (2005)`*. Nusa Jawa: Silang Budaya, Bagian 2: Jaringan Asia`*. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama. An Indonesian translation of Lombard, Denys (1990). `*Le carrefour javanais. Essai d'histoire globale (The Javanese Crossroads: Towards a Global History) vol. 2`*. Paris: Éditions de l'École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales. p. 12.

`:cite-note-15`!14.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-15]`_`f `:citerefmills1970`aMills, J.V.G. (1970). `*Ying-yai Sheng-lan: The Overall Survey of the Ocean Shores [1433]`*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 86.

`:cite-note-12-16`!15.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-12-16-0]`_`f `:citerefnugroho2011`aNugroho, Irawan Djoko (2011). `*Majapahit Peradaban Maritim`*. Suluh Nuswantara Bakti. `F33f`_`[ISBN`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=ISBN_(identifier)]`_`f 978-602-9346-00-8.

`:cite-note-17`!16.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-17]`_`f Yule, Sir Henry (1913). `*Cathay and the way thither: being a collection of medieval notices of China vol. III`*. London: The Hakluyt Society.

`:cite-note-18`!17.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-18]`_`f Braginsky, Vladimir. 1998. Two Eastern Christian sources on medieval Nusantara Archived 2021-05-20 at the `F33f`_`[Wayback Machine`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Wayback_Machine]`_`f. `*Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde`*. 154(3): 367–396.

`:cite-note-19`!18.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-19]`_`f `:citerefzenkovsky1974`aZenkovsky, Serge A. (1974). `*Medieval Russia's epics, chronicles, and tales`*. New York: Dutton. pp. 345–347. `F33f`_`[ISBN`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=ISBN_(identifier)]`_`f 0525473637.

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`:cite-note-77`!76.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-77]`_`f `*Tempo: Indonesia's Weekly News Magazine`*. Arsa Raya Perdana. 2006.

`:cite-note-78`!77.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-78]`_`f "Growth and impact of the Dutch East India Company". `F33f`_`[Britannica`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Britannica]`_`f. Retrieved 27 June 2024.

`:cite-note-79`!78.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-79]`_`f "Why Is Coffee Called "A Cup of Joe"?". `*Wonderopolis`*. 16 January 2018.

`:cite-note-80`!79.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-80]`_`f `:citerefdemri2017`aDemri (December 12, 2017). "Why is Coffee Called Java? Colloquial Coffee Synonyms". `*www.littlecoffeeplace.com`*.

`:cite-note-81`!80.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-81]`_`f "Why is Coffee Called Java? | Coffee Facts & History". `*The Coffee Chronicler`*. July 30, 2021.

`:cite-note-82`!81.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-82]`_`f "Why is Coffee Called Java?". April 12, 2016.

`:cite-note-bps-83`!82.`! `F0af`_`[↑`#cite-ref-bps-83-0]`_`f `:citerefbadan-pusat-statistik2022`a`F33f`_`[Badan Pusat Statistik`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=Statistics_Indonesia]`_`f (2022). `*PDRB Atas Dasar Harga Berlaku Menurut Pengeluaran (Juta Rupiah), 2021`*. Jakarta: Badan Pusat Statistik.

>>Bibliography

• `:citereftaylor2003`aTaylor, Jean Gelman (2003). `*Indonesia: Peoples and Histories`*. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. `F33f`_`[ISBN`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=ISBN_(identifier)]`_`f 978-0-300-10518-6.

>>Further reading

• `:citerefcribb2000`aCribb, Robert (2000). `*Historical Atlas of Indonesia`*. London and Honolulu: RoutledgeCurzon Press, University of Hawaii Press. `F33f`_`[ISBN`:/page/wikibook/entry.mu`zim=wikipedia_en_all_nopic_2025-08.zim|entry_path=ISBN_(identifier)]`_`f 978-0-8248-2111-1.

• Padmo, Soegijanto (2000). `*Java and The Making of The Nation.`* Humaniora Journal, Gadjah Mada University.

>>External links

• Java travel guide from Wikivoyage

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